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WebComputer Systems Design and Architecture - Free download as PDF File .pdf) or read online for free. Scribd is the world's largest social reading and publishing site. WebSECOND Edition Features - Covers the fundamentals of digital logic design and reinforces logic concepts through the design of a MIPS microprocessor. - Features side-by-side WebComputer Systems Design And Architecture 2Nd Edition PDF Book Details. Product details Publisher: Addison-Wesley Professional; 2nd ed. edition (April 3, ) WebDownload Ebook Computer System Design And Architecture 2nd Edition Read Pdf Free Thank you very much for reading Computer System Design And Architecture WebFeb 13, · Contribute to stevemac/pdfs development by creating an account on GitHub. A tag already exists with the provided branch name. Many Git commands ... read more
Combinational Building Blocks. Latches and Flip-Flops. Synchronous Logic Design. Finite State Machines. Timing of Sequential Logic. Arithmetic Circuits. Number Systems. Sequential Building Blocks. Memory Arrays. Logic Arrays. Assembly Language. Machine Language. Lights, Camera, Action: Compiling, Assembling, and Loading. Odds and Ends. Real-World Perspective: x86 Architecture. Performance Analysis. Single-Cycle Processor. Multicycle Processor. Pipelined Processor. Memory System Performance Analysis. Virtual Memory. Programmable Logic. Application-Specific Integrated Circuits. Data Sheets. Logic Families. Packaging and Assembly. Transmission Lines. Welcome to C. There are dozens of good books in print on digital design. There are also several good books about computer architecture, especially the classic texts of Patterson and Hennessy.
We particularly like their coverage of the MIPS architecture and microarchitecture because MIPS is a commercially successful microprocessor architecture, yet it is simple enough to clearly explain and build in an introductory class. Because our class has no prerequisites, the first half of the semester is dedicated to digital design, which is not covered by COD. Other universities have indicated a need for a book that combines digital design and computer architecture. We have undertaken to prepare such a book. We believe that building a microprocessor is a special rite of passage for engineering and computer science students. The inner workings of a processor seem almost magical to the uninitiated, yet prove to be straightforward when carefully explained. Digital design in itself is a powerful and exciting subject.
Assembly language programming unveils the inner language spoken by the processor. Microarchitecture is the link that brings it all together. This book is suitable for a rapid-paced, single-semester introduction to digital design and computer architecture or for a two-quarter or two-semester sequence giving more time to digest the material and experiment in the lab. The course can be taught without prerequisites. The material is usually taught at the sophomore- or junior-year level, but may also be accessible to bright freshmen. xix xx PREFACE FEATURES This book offers a number of special features. Side-by-Side Coverage of SystemVerilog and VHDL Hardware description languages HDLs are at the center of modern digital design practices. Unfortunately, designers are evenly split between the two dominant languages, SystemVerilog and VHDL.
This book introduces HDLs in Chapter 4 as soon as combinational and sequential logic design has been covered. HDLs are then used in Chapters 5 and 7 to design larger building blocks and entire processors. Nevertheless, Chapter 4 can be skipped and the later chapters are still accessible for courses that choose not to cover HDLs. This book is unique in its side-by-side presentation of SystemVerilog and VHDL, enabling the reader to learn the two languages. Chapter 4 describes principles applying to both HDLs, then provides languagespecific syntax and examples in adjacent columns. This side-by-side treatment makes it easy for an instructor to choose either HDL, and for the reader to transition from one to the other, either in a class or in professional practice. Classic MIPS Architecture and Microarchitecture Chapters 6 and 7 focus on the MIPS architecture adapted from the treatment of Patterson and Hennessy.
MIPS is an ideal architecture because it is a real architecture shipped in millions of products yearly, yet it is streamlined and easy to learn. Moreover, hundreds of universities around the world have developed pedagogy, labs, and tools around the MIPS architecture. Real-World Perspectives Chapters 6, 7, and 8 illustrate the architecture, microarchitecture, and memory hierarchy of Intel x86 processors. These real-world perspective chapters show how the concepts in the chapters relate to the chips found in many PCs and consumer electronics. Accessible Overview of Advanced Microarchitecture Chapter 7 includes an overview of modern high-performance microarchitectural features including branch prediction, superscalar and out-of-order operation, multithreading, and multicore processors. The treatment is accessible to a student in a first course and shows how the microarchitectures in the book can be extended to modern processors.
PREFACE End-of-Chapter Exercises and Interview Questions The best way to learn digital design is to do it. Each chapter ends with numerous exercises to practice the material. The exercises are followed by a set of interview questions that our industrial colleagues have asked students applying for work in the field. These questions provide a helpful glimpse into the types of problems job applicants will typically encounter during the interview process. For more details, see the next section, Online Supplements. Synopsys offers Synplify® Premier to qualified universities in a package of 50 licenses. For more information on the Synopsys University program, go to the instructor site for this book. Details on the sample lab materials are also provided here. It allows students to enter their digital designs in schematic or using either the SystemVerilog or VHDL hardware description language HDL.
Quartus II Web Edition also includes a built-in logic synthesis tool supporting both SystemVerilog and VHDL. The difference between Web Edition and Subscription Edition is that Web Edition supports a subset of the most common Altera FPGAs. The difference between ModelSim-Altera Starter Edition and ModelSim commercial versions is that Starter Edition degrades performance for simulations with more than 10, lines of HDL. Microchip MPLAB IDE Microchip MPLAB Integrated Development Environment IDE is a tool for programming PIC microcontrollers and is available for free download. MPLAB integrates program writing, compiling, simulating, and debugging into a single interface. It includes a C compiler and debugger, allowing the students to develop C and assembly programs, compile them, and optionally program them onto a PIC microcontroller.
Optional Tools: Synplify Premier and QtSpim Synplify Premier and QtSpim are optional tools that can be used with this material. The Synplify Premier product is a synthesis and debug environment for FPGA and CPLD design. Included is HDL Analyst, a unique graphical HDL analysis tool that automatically generates schematic views of the design with cross-probing back to the HDL source code. This is immensely useful in the learning and debugging process. Synopsys offers Synplify Premier to qualified universities in a package of 50 licenses.
For more information on the Synopsys University program or the Synopsys FPGA design software, visit the instructor site for this book textbooks. QtSpim, also called simply SPIM, is a MIPS simulator that runs MIPS assembly code. Students enter their MIPS assembly code into a text file and run it using QtSpim. QtSpim displays the instructions, memory, and register values. PREFACE LABS The companion site includes links to a series of labs that cover topics from digital design through computer architecture. The labs teach students how to use the Quartus II tools to enter, simulate, synthesize, and implement their designs. The labs also include topics on C and assembly language programming using the Microchip MPLAB IDE. After synthesis, students can implement their designs using the Altera DE2 Development and Education Board. This powerful and competitively priced board is available from www. The board contains an FPGA that can be programmed to implement student designs.
We provide labs that describe how to implement a selection of designs on the DE2 Board using Cyclone II Web Edition. To run the labs, students will need to download and install Altera Quartus II Web Edition and Microchip MPLAB IDE. Instructors may also choose to install the tools on lab machines. The labs include instructions on how to implement the projects on the DE2 Board. The implementation step may be skipped, but we have found it of great value. We have tested the labs on Windows, but the tools are also available for Linux. BUGS As all experienced programmers know, any program of significant complexity undoubtedly contains bugs. So too do books. We have taken great care to find and squash the bugs in this book. However, some errors undoubtedly do remain. We have taught from various editions of their book for many years.
We appreciate their gracious support of this book and their permission to build on their microarchitectures. Duane Bibby, our favorite cartoonist, labored long and hard to illustrate the fun and adventure of digital design. We also appreciate the enthusiasm of Nate McFadden, Todd Green, Danielle Miller, Robyn Day, and the rest of the team at Morgan Kaufmann who made this book happen. We also appreciate the xxiii xxiv PREFACE work of Chris Parks, Carl Pearson, and Johnathan Chai who tested code and developed content for the second edition. Numerous reviewers substantially improved the book. They include John Barr, Jack V. Briner, Andrew C. Brown, Carl Baumgaertner, A. Utku Diril, Jim Frenzel, Jaeha Kim, Phillip King, James Pinter-Lucke, Amir Roth, Z. Jerry Shi, James E. Stine, Luke Teyssier, Peiyi Zhao, Zach Dodds, Nathaniel Guy, Aswin Krishna, Volnei Pedroni, Karl Wang, Ricardo Jasinski, and an anonymous reviewer.
We also appreciate the students in our course at Harvey Mudd College who have given us helpful feedback on drafts of this textbook. Of special note are Matt Weiner, Carl Walsh, Andrew Carter, Casey Schilling, Alice Clifton, Chris Acon, and Stephen Brawner. And, last but not least, we both thank our families for their love and support. This page intentionally left blank From Zero to One 1. A laptop computer today has far more capability than a room-sized mainframe of yesteryear. A luxury automobile contains about 50 microprocessors. Advances in microprocessors have made cell phones and the Internet possible, have vastly improved medicine, and have transformed how war is waged.
We believe that microprocessors are not only technically, economically, and socially important, but are also an intrinsically fascinating human invention. By the time you finish reading this book, you will know how to design and build your own microprocessor. The skills you learn along the way will prepare you to design many other digital systems. We assume that you have a basic familiarity with electricity, some prior programming experience, and a genuine interest in understanding what goes on under the hood of a computer. We then explore how to combine logic gates into more complicated modules such as adders and memories. Then we shift gears to programming in assembly language, the native tongue of the microprocessor. Finally, we put gates together to build a microprocessor that runs these assembly language programs. They do not require grungy mathematics or a profound knowledge of physics.
A microprocessor may be the first system that you build that is too complex to fit in Digital Design and Computer Architecture, Second Edition. DOI: One of the major themes weaved through this book is how to manage complexity. Modern digital systems are built from millions or billions of transistors. No human being could understand these systems by writing equations describing the movement of electrons in each transistor and solving all of the equations simultaneously. You will need to learn to manage complexity to understand how to build a microprocessor without getting mired in a morass of detail.
A system can be viewed from many different levels of abstraction. For example, American politicians abstract the world into cities, counties, states, and countries. A county contains multiple cities and a state contains many counties. When a politician is running for president, the politician is mostly interested in how the state as a whole will vote, rather than how each county votes, so the state is the most useful level of abstraction. On the other hand, the Census Bureau measures the population of every city, so the agency must consider the details of a lower level of abstraction. Figure 1. At the lowest level of abstraction is the physics, the motion of electrons. Our system is constructed from electronic devices such as transistors or vacuum tubes, once upon a time.
These devices have well-defined connection points called terminals and can be modeled by the relationship between voltage and current as measured at each terminal. By abstracting to this device level, we can ignore the individual electrons. The next level of abstraction is analog circuits, in which devices are assembled to create components such as amplifiers. Analog circuits input and output a continuous range of voltages. Digital circuits such as logic gates restrict the voltages to discrete ranges, which we will use to indicate 0 and 1. In logic design, we build more complex structures, such as adders or memories, from digital circuits. Microarchitecture links the logic and architecture levels of abstraction.
For example, the Intel x86 architecture used by microprocessors in most personal computers PCs is defined by a set of 1. Microarchitecture involves combining logic elements to execute the instructions defined by the architecture. For example, the Intel Core i7, the Intel , and the AMD Athlon all implement the x86 architecture with different microarchitectures. Moving into the software realm, the operating system handles lowlevel details such as accessing a hard drive or managing memory. Finally, the application software uses these facilities provided by the operating system to solve a problem for the user.
Thanks to the power of abstraction, your grandmother can surf the Web without any regard for the quantum vibrations of electrons or the organization of the memory in her computer. This book focuses on the levels of abstraction from digital circuits through computer architecture. When you are working at one level of abstraction, it is good to know something about the levels of abstraction immediately above and below where you are working. For example, a computer scientist cannot fully optimize code without understanding the architecture for which the program is being written. A device engineer cannot make wise trade-offs in transistor design without understanding the circuits in which the transistors will be used. We hope that by the time you finish reading this book, you can pick the level of abstraction appropriate to solving your problem and evaluate the impact of your design choices on other levels of abstraction.
Using interchangeable parts is a familiar application of discipline. One of the first examples of interchangeable parts was in flintlock rifle manufacturing. Until the early 19th century, rifles were individually crafted by hand. Components purchased from many different craftsmen were carefully filed and fit together by a highly skilled gunmaker. The discipline of interchangeable parts revolutionized the industry. By limiting the components to a standardized set with well-defined tolerances, rifles could be assembled and repaired much faster and with less skill. The gunmaker no longer concerned himself with lower levels of abstraction such as the specific shape of an individual barrel or gunstock. In the context of this book, the digital discipline will be very important.
Digital circuits use discrete voltages, whereas analog circuits use continuous voltages. Therefore, digital circuits are a subset of analog circuits and in some sense must be capable of less than the broader class of analog circuits. However, digital circuits are much simpler to design. By limiting 5 Each chapter in this book begins with an abstraction icon indicating the focus of the chapter in deep blue, with secondary topics shown in lighter shades of blue. For example, digital televisions, compact disks CDs , and cell phones are replacing their analog predecessors. These principles apply to both software and hardware systems. Captain Meriwether Lewis of the Lewis and Clark Expedition was one of the early advocates of interchangeable parts for rifles.
In , he explained: The guns of Drewyer and Sergt. Pryor were both out of order. The first was repared with a new lock, the old one having become unfit for use; the second had the cock screw broken which was replaced by a duplicate which had been prepared for the lock at Harpers Ferry where she was manufactured. But for the precaution taken in bringing on those extra locks, and parts of locks, in addition to the ingenuity of John Shields, most of our guns would at this moment be entirely unfit for use; but fortunately for us I have it in my power here to record that they are all in good order. See Elliott Coues, ed. Common modules are reused many times, reducing the number of distinct modules that must be designed. A flintlock rifle was one of the most intricate objects in common use in the early 19th century. Using the principle of hierarchy, we can break it into components shown in Figure 1. The barrel is the long metal tube through which the bullet is fired. The lock is the firing mechanism.
And the stock is the wooden body that holds the parts together and provides a secure grip for the user. In turn, the lock contains the trigger, hammer, flint, frizzen, and pan. Each of these components could be hierarchically described in further detail. Modularity teaches that each component should have a well-defined function and interface. A function of the stock is to mount the barrel and lock. Its interface consists of its length and the location of its mounting pins. In a modular rifle design, stocks from many different manufacturers can be used with a particular barrel as long as the stock and barrel are of the correct length and have the proper mounting mechanism. A function of the barrel is to impart spin to the bullet so that it travels more accurately. Modularity dictates that there should be no side effects: the design of the stock should not impede the function of the barrel.
Regularity teaches that interchangeable parts are a good idea. With regularity, a damaged barrel can be replaced by an identical part. The barrels can be efficiently built on an assembly line, instead of being painstakingly hand-crafted. We will return to these principles of hierarchy, modularity, and regularity throughout the book. net © Flint Cock String Spring Pan Expanded view of Lock 1. For example, the voltage on a wire, the frequency of an oscillation, or the position of a mass are all continuous quantities. Digital systems, on the other hand, represent information with discrete-valued variables—that is, variables with a finite number of distinct values. Babbage labored from to ,1 designing and attempting to build this mechanical computer. The Analytical Engine used gears with ten positions labeled 0 through 9, much like a mechanical odometer in a car. Charles Babbage, — Attended Cambridge University and married Georgiana Whitmore in Also invented the cowcatcher and the universal postage rate.
Interested in lock-picking, but abhorred street musicians image courtesy of Fourmilab Switzerland, www. Babbage chose 25 rows of gears, so the machine has digit precision. He wrote An Investigation of the Laws of Thought , which introduced binary variables and the three fundamental logic operations: AND, OR, and NOT image courtesy of the American Institute of Physics. Indeed, the word bit is short for binary digit. A continuous signal theoretically contains an infinite amount of information because it can take on an infinite number of values. In practice, noise and measurement error limit the information to only 10 to 16 bits for most continuous signals.
If the measurement must be made rapidly, the information content is lower e. George Boole developed a system of logic operating on binary variables that is now known as Boolean logic. Electronic computers commonly use a positive voltage to represent '1' and zero volts to represent '0'. In this book, we will use the terms '1', TRUE, and HIGH synonymously. Similarly, we will use '0', FALSE, and LOW interchangeably. On the other hand, understanding the details of the hardware allows the programmer to optimize the software better for that specific computer. In the next section, we examine how groups of bits can be used to represent numbers. In later chapters, we will also use groups of bits to represent letters and programs. This section introduces the various number systems that will be used throughout the rest of the book.
Just as you probably have ten fingers, there are ten decimal digits: 0, 1, 2, …, 9. Decimal digits are joined together to form longer decimal numbers. Each column of a decimal number has ten times the weight of the previous column. From right to left, the column weights are 1, 10, , , and so on. Decimal numbers are referred to as base The base is indicated by a subscript after the number to prevent confusion when working in more than one base. For example, Figure 1. This is called the range of the number. For example, a three-digit decimal number represents one of possibilities in the range of 0 to Each column of a binary number has twice the weight of the previous column, so binary numbers are base 2. In binary, the 1's column 10's column 's column 's column Figure 1.
Table 1. Example 1. Solution: Figure 1. Solution: Determine whether each column of the binary result has a 1 or a 0. We can do this starting at either the left or the right column. Working from the left, start with the largest power of 2 less than or equal to the number in this case, Hence, it is sometimes more convenient to work in base 16, called hexadecimal. Hexadecimal numbers use the digits 0 to 9 along with the letters A to F, as shown in Table 1. Columns in base 16 have weights of 1, 16, or , or , and so on. Solution: Conversion between hexadecimal and binary is easy because each hexadecimal digit directly corresponds to four binary digits. Conversion to decimal requires the arithmetic shown in Figure 1. A more proper term would use the Latin sexa six , but sexadecimal sounded too risqué. Solution: Again, conversion is easy.
Start reading from the right. Solution: Like decimal to binary conversion, decimal to hexadecimal conversion can be done from the left or the right. Working from the left, start with the largest power of 16 less than or equal to the number in this case, Now it is easy to convert from hexadecimal to binary, as in Example 1. Working from the right, repeatedly divide the number by The remainder goes in each column. Again, the result is 14D The size of objects stored in computer memories is customarily measured in bytes rather than bits. A group of four bits, or half a byte, is called a nibble. One hexadecimal digit stores one nibble and two hexadecimal digits store one full byte. Nibbles are no longer a commonly used unit, but the term is cute. Microprocessors handle data in chunks called words. The size of a word depends on the architecture of the microprocessor. When this chapter was written in , most computers had bit processors, indicating that they operate on bit words.
At the time, older computers handling bit words were also widely available. Simpler microprocessors, especially those used in gadgets such as toasters, use 8- or bit words. Similarly, within a word, the bytes are identified as least significant byte LSB through most significant byte MSB , as shown in Figure 1. A microprocessor is a processor built on a single chip. Intel introduced the first 4-bit microprocessor, called the , in Now, even the most sophisticated supercomputers are built using microprocessors. We will use the terms microprocessor and processor interchangeably throughout this book. Hence, the term kilo Greek for thousand indicates For example, bytes is one kilobyte 1 KB. Solution: Split the exponent into a multiple of ten and the remainder. Similarly, MB, Mb, GB, and Gb are used for millions and billions of bytes and bits. Memory capacity is usually measured in bytes. As in decimal addition, if the sum of two numbers is greater than what fits in a single digit, we carry a 1 into the next column.
In the right-most column of Figure 1. For example, in the right-most column of Figure 1. For obvious reasons, the bit that is carried over to the neighboring column is called the carry bit. The carries are indicated in blue. We can check our work by repeating the computation in decimal. Addition is said to overflow if the result is too big to fit in the available digits. A 4-bit number, for example, has the range [0, 15]. The fifth bit is discarded, producing an incorrect result in the remaining four bits. Overflow can be detected by checking for a carry out of the most significant column. Does overflow occur? This result overflows the range of a 4-bit binary number.
If it must be stored as four bits, the most significant bit is discarded, leaving the incorrect result of If the computation had been done using numbers with five or more bits, the result would have been correct. We will often want to represent both positive and negative numbers, requiring a different binary number system. The failure was caused when the computer controlling the rocket overflowed its bit range and crashed. The code had been extensively tested on the Ariane 4 rocket. However, the Ariane 5 had a faster engine that produced larger values for the control computer, leading to the overflow. A sign bit of 0 indicates positive and a sign bit of 1 indicates negative. Both indicate zero.
As you may expect, it can be troublesome to have two different representations for the same number. Notice that positive numbers have a 0 in the most significant position and negative numbers have a 1 in this position, so the most significant bit can be viewed as the sign bit. The process consists of inverting all of the bits in the number, then adding 1 to the least significant bit position. This is useful to find the representation of a negative number or to determine the magnitude of a negative number. Inverting produces Solution: has a leading 1, so it must be negative. To find its magnitude, invert the bits and add 1. Recall that when adding N-bit numbers, the carry out of the Nth bit i. The fifth bit is discarded, leaving the correct 4-bit result Note that the carry out of the most significant position is discarded because the result is stored in four bits. Zero is considered positive because its sign bit is 0. However the values are split between positive and negative numbers.
For example, a 4-bit unsigned number represents 16 values: 0 to Hence, this negative number has no positive counterpart. Adding a positive number to a negative number never causes overflow. Unlike unsigned numbers, a carry out of the most significant column does not indicate overflow. Instead, overflow occurs if the two numbers being added have the same sign bit and the result has the opposite sign bit. Does the result overflow? This process is called sign extension. They are sign-extended to seven bits by copying the sign bit into the three new upper bits to form and , respectively. Subtraction is performed by negating the second number i. Unsigned numbers span the range [0, 15] in regular binary order. The nonnegative numbers [0, 7] share the same encodings as unsigned numbers. The most significant bit is the sign bit. The positive numbers [1, 7] share the same encodings as unsigned numbers. The negative numbers are symmetric but have the sign bit set.
Logic gates are simple digital circuits that take one or more binary inputs and produce a binary output. Logic gates are drawn with a symbol showing the input or inputs and the output. Digital designers typically use letters near the beginning of the alphabet for gate inputs and the letter Y for the gate output. The relationship between the inputs and the output can be described with a truth table or a Boolean equation. A truth table lists inputs on the left and the corresponding output on the right. It has one row for each possible combination of inputs. A Boolean equation is a mathematical expression using binary variables. If A is FALSE, then Y is TRUE. If A is TRUE, then Y is FALSE.
This relationship is summarized by the truth table and Boolean equation in the figure. It simply copies the input to the output. From the logical point of view, a buffer is no different from a wire, so it might seem useless. However, from the analog point of view, the buffer might have desirable characteristics such as the ability to deliver large amounts of current to a motor or the ability to quickly send its output to many gates. This is an example of why we need to consider multiple levels of abstraction to fully understand a system; the digital abstraction hides the real purpose of a buffer. The triangle symbol indicates a buffer. A circle on the output is called a bubble and indicates inversion, as was seen in the NOT gate symbol of Figure 1. The AND gate shown in Figure 1. Otherwise, the output is FALSE. By convention, the inputs are listed in the order 00, 01, 10, 11, as if you were counting in binary. Any gate can be followed by a bubble to invert its operation.
The NAND gate performs NOT AND. Its output is TRUE unless both inputs are TRUE. The NOR gate performs NOT OR. Its output is TRUE if neither A nor B is TRUE. An N-input XOR gate is sometimes called a parity gate and produces a TRUE output if an odd number of inputs are TRUE. As with two-input gates, the input combinations in the truth table are listed in counting order. Complete the truth table. The XNOR output is TRUE if both inputs are FALSE or both inputs are TRUE. The two-input XNOR gate is sometimes called an equality gate because its output is TRUE when the inputs are equal. The most common are AND, OR, XOR, NAND, NOR, and XNOR. An N-input OR gate produces a TRUE output when at least one input is TRUE.
The output is TRUE only if none of the inputs are TRUE. Create a truth table. The output is TRUE only if all of the inputs are TRUE. However, the variables are represented by continuous physical quantities such as the voltage on a wire, the position of a gear, or the level of fluid in a cylinder. Hence, the designer must choose a way to relate the continuous value to the discrete value. For example, consider representing a binary signal A with a voltage on a wire. Any real system must tolerate some noise, so 4. But what about 4. table 1. The highest voltage in the system comes from the power supply and is usually called VDD. As chips have progressed to smaller transistors, VDD has dropped to 3. The first gate is called the driver and the second gate is called the receiver.
The output of the driver is 23 1. The driver produces a LOW 0 output in the range of 0 to VOL or a HIGH 1 output in the range of VOH to VDD· If the receiver gets an input in the range of 0 to VIL, it will consider the input to be LOW. If the receiver gets an input in the range of VIH to VDD, it will consider the input to be HIGH. VOH,VOL, VIH, and VIL are called the output and input high and low logic levels. Thus, even if the output of the driver is contaminated by some noise, the input of the receiver will still detect the correct logic level. The noise margin is the amount of noise that could be added to a worst-case output such that the signal can still be interpreted as a valid input. As can be seen in Figure 1. VO1 is the output voltage of inverter I1, and VI2 is the input voltage of inverter I2. What are the inverter low and high noise margins? Can the circuit tolerate 1 V of noise between VO1 and VI2? VDD stands for the voltage on the drain of a metal-oxidesemiconductor transistor, used to build most modern chips.
The power supply voltage is also sometimes called V CC , standing for the voltage on the collector of a bipolar junction transistor used to build chips in an older technology. Ground is sometimes called VSS because it is the voltage on the source of a metal-oxidesemiconductor transistor. See Section 1. DC indicates behavior when an input voltage is held constant or changes slowly enough for the rest of the system to keep up. In contrast, the transient response of a circuit is the behavior when an input voltage changes rapidly. Section 2. The DC transfer characteristics of a gate describe the output voltage as a function of the input voltage when the input is changed slowly enough that the output can keep up. They are called transfer characteristics because they describe the relationship between input and output voltages. A real inverter changes more gradually between the extremes, as shown in Figure 1.
This raises the question of how to define the logic levels. These two points are called the unity gain points. Choosing logic levels at the unity gain points usually maximizes the noise margins. If VIL were reduced, VOH would only increase by a small amount. But if VIL were increased, VOH would drop precipitously. The static discipline requires that, given logically valid inputs, every circuit element will produce logically valid outputs. By conforming to the static discipline, digital designers sacrifice the freedom of using arbitrary analog circuit elements in return for the simplicity and robustness of digital circuits.
They raise the level of abstraction 25 1. The choice of VDD and logic levels is arbitrary, but all gates that communicate must have compatible logic levels. Therefore, gates are grouped into logic families such that all gates in a logic family obey the static discipline when used with other gates in the family. Logic gates in the same logic family snap together like Legos in that they use consistent power supply voltages and logic levels. Their logic levels are compared in Table 1. Since then, logic families have balkanized with a proliferation of even lower power supply voltages.
Appendix A. Solution: Table 1. Note that a 5 V logic family such as TTL or CMOS may produce an output voltage as HIGH as 5 V. If this 5 V signal drives the input of a 3. Born in Burlington, Iowa. Received a B. in physics from Grinnell College and a Ph. in physics from MIT. Cofounded Fairchild Semiconductor in and Intel in Coinvented the integrated circuit. Many engineers from his teams went on to found other seminal semiconductor companies © , Intel Corporation. Reproduced by permission. Modern computers use transistors because they are cheap, small, and reliable. Transistors are electrically controlled switches that turn ON or OFF when a voltage or current is applied to a control terminal. In , Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments built the first integrated circuit containing two transistors. In , Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor patented a method of interconnecting multiple transistors on a single silicon chip. Thanks to more than three decades of unprecedented manufacturing advances, engineers can now pack roughly one billion MOSFETs onto a 1 cm2 chip of silicon, and these transistors cost less than 10 microcents apiece.
The capacity and cost continue to improve by an order of magnitude every 8 years or so. MOSFETs are now the building blocks of almost all 27 1. In this section, we will peer beneath the digital abstraction to see how logic gates are built from MOSFETs. Silicon Si is a group IV atom, so it has four electrons in its valence shell and forms bonds with four adjacent atoms, resulting in a crystalline lattice. In the figure, a line represents a covalent bond. By itself, silicon is a poor conductor because all the electrons are tied up in covalent bonds. However, it becomes a better conductor when small amounts of impurities, called dopant atoms, are carefully added. If a group V dopant such as arsenic As is added, the dopant atoms have an extra electron that is not involved in the bonds.
The electron carries a negative charge, so we call arsenic an n-type dopant. On the other hand, if a group III dopant such as boron B is added, the dopant atoms are missing an electron, as shown in Figure 1. This missing electron is called a hole. In a similar fashion, the hole can migrate around the lattice. The hole is a lack of negative charge, so it acts like a positively charged particle. Hence, we call boron a p-type dopant. Because the conductivity of silicon changes over many orders of magnitude depending on the concentration of dopants, silicon is called a semiconductor. The p-type region is called the anode and the n-type region is called the cathode, as illustrated in Figure 1. But when the anode voltage is lower than the voltage on the cathode, the diode is reverse biased, and no current flows.
The diode symbol intuitively shows that current only flows in one direction. The capacitance is proportional to the size of the conductors and inversely proportional to the distance between them. The symbol for a capacitor is shown in Figure 1. Capacitance is important because charging or discharging a conductor takes time and energy. More capacitance means that a circuit will be slower and require more energy to operate. Speed and energy will be discussed throughout this book. A pin dual-inline package DIP contains a small chip scarcely visible in the center that is connected to 40 metal pins, 20 on a side, by gold wires thinner than a strand of hair photograph by Kevin Mapp.
A MOSFET is a sandwich of several layers of conducting and insulating materials. MOSFETs are built on thin flat wafers of silicon of about 15 to 30 cm in diameter. The manufacturing process begins with a bare wafer. The process involves a sequence of steps in which dopants are implanted into the silicon, thin films of silicon dioxide and silicon are grown, and metal is deposited. Between each step, the wafer is patterned so that the materials appear only where they are desired. Because transistors are a fraction of a micron2 in length and the entire wafer is processed at once, it is inexpensive to manufacture billions of transistors at a time. Once processing is complete, the wafer is cut into rectangles called chips or dice that contain thousands, millions, or even billions of transistors. The chip is tested, then placed in a plastic or ceramic package with metal pins to connect it to a circuit board.
The MOSFET sandwich consists of a conducting layer called the gate on top of an insulating layer of silicon dioxide SiO2 on top of the silicon wafer, called the substrate. Historically, the gate was constructed from metal, hence the name metal-oxide-semiconductor. Modern manufacturing processes use polycrystalline silicon for the gate because it does not melt during subsequent high-temperature processing steps. Silicon dioxide is better known as glass and is often simply called oxide in the semiconductor industry. The metal-oxide-semiconductor sandwich forms a capacitor, in which a thin layer of insulating oxide called a dielectric separates the metal and semiconductor plates. The n-type transistors, called nMOS, have regions of n-type dopants adjacent to the gate called the source and the drain and are built on a p-type semiconductor substrate.
The pMOS transistors are just the opposite, consisting of p-type source and drain regions in an n-type substrate. A MOSFET behaves as a voltage-controlled switch in which the gate voltage creates an electric field that turns ON or OFF a connection between the source and drain. The term field effect transistor comes from this principle of operation. Let us start by exploring the operation of an nMOS transistor. The substrate of an nMOS transistor is normally tied to GND, the lowest voltage in the system. First, consider the situation when the gate is also at 0 V, as shown in Figure 1.
The diodes between the source or drain and the substrate are reverse biased because the source or drain voltage is nonnegative. Hence, there is no path for current to flow between the source and drain, so the transistor is OFF. Now, consider when the gate is raised to VDD, as shown in Figure 1. When a positive voltage is applied to the top plate of a capacitor, it establishes an electric field that attracts positive charge on the top plate and negative charge to the bottom plate. If the voltage is sufficiently large, so much negative charge is attracted to the underside of the gate that the region inverts from p-type to effectively become n-type. This inverted region is called the channel.
Now the transistor has a continuous path from the n-type source through the n-type channel to the n-type drain, so electrons can flow from source to drain. The transistor is ON. The gate voltage required to turn on a transistor is called the threshold voltage,Vt, and is typically 0. However, we say that charge flows from the source to the drain. In an nMOS transistor, the charge is carried by electrons, which flow from negative voltage to positive voltage. In a pMOS transistor, the charge is carried by holes, which flow from positive voltage to negative voltage. If we draw schematics with the most positive voltage at the top and the most negative at the bottom, the source of negative charges in an nMOS transistor is the bottom terminal and the source of positive charges in a pMOS transistor is the top terminal. A technician holds a inch wafer containing hundreds of microprocessor chips © , Intel Corporation.
Born in San Francisco. in chemistry from UC Berkeley and a Ph. in chemistry and physics from Caltech. Cofounded Intel in with Robert Noyce. Observed in that the number of transistors on a computer chip doubles every year. Since , transistor counts have doubled every two years. Semiconductor sales have also increased exponentially. Unfortunately, power consumption has increased exponentially as well © , Intel Corporation. pMOS transistors work in just the opposite fashion, as might be guessed from the bubble on their symbol shown in Figure 1. The substrate is tied to VDD. When the gate is also at VDD, the pMOS transistor is OFF. When the gate is at GND, the channel inverts to p-type and the pMOS transistor is ON.
Unfortunately, MOSFETs are not perfect switches. However, we will see that it is possible to build logic gates that use transistors only in their good mode. nMOS transistors need a p-type substrate, and pMOS transistors need an n-type substrate. To build both flavors of transistors on the same chip, manufacturing processes typically start with a p-type wafer, then implant n-type regions called wells where the pMOS transistors should go. These processes that provide both flavors of transistors are called Complementary MOS or CMOS. CMOS processes are used to build the vast majority of all transistors fabricated today.
In summary, CMOS processes give us two types of electrically controlled switches, as shown in Figure 1. The voltage at the gate g regulates the flow of current between the source s and drain d. nMOS transistors are OFF when the gate is 0 and ON when the gate is 1. The triangle indicates GND, and the flat bar indicates VDD; these labels will be omitted from future schematics. The nMOS transistor, N1, is connected between GND and the Y output. The pMOS transistor, P1, is connected between VDD and the Y output. Both transistor gates are controlled by the input, A. Hence, Y is connected to VDD but not to GND, and is pulled up to a logic 1. P1 passes a good 1. N1 passes a good 0. Checking against the truth table in Figure 1. In schematic diagrams, wires are always joined at three-way junctions.
They are joined at four-way junctions only if a dot is shown. The nMOS transistors N1 and N2 are connected in series; both nMOS transistors must be ON to pull the output down to GND. The pMOS transistors P1 and P2 are in parallel; only one pMOS transistor must be ON to pull the output up to VDD. P1 is OFF, but P2 is ON, creating a path from VDD to Y. We will keep fighting for all libraries - stand with us! Search the history of over billion web pages on the Internet. Capture a web page as it appears now for use as a trusted citation in the future. Better World Books. Uploaded by Tracey. Gutierres on June 7, Internet Archive logo A line drawing of the Internet Archive headquarters building façade. Search icon An illustration of a magnifying glass. User icon An illustration of a person's head and chest. Sign up Log in. Web icon An illustration of a computer application window Wayback Machine Texts icon An illustration of an open book.
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Tags: Информатика и вычислительная техника Организация ЭВМ и архитектура ВС. Toc: Front Cover Page 1 In Praise of Digital Design and Computer Architecture Page 2 About the Authors Page 5 Digital Design and Computer Architecture Page 6 Copyright Page 7 Dedication Page 8 Table of Contents Page 10 Preface Page 20 Accessible Overview of Advanced Microarchitecture Page 21 Online Supplements Page 22 Optional Tools: Synplify Premier and QtSpim Page 23 Acknowledgments Page 24 1. Page 28 1. Page 29 1. Page 30 1. Page 31 1. Page 32 1. Page 34 1. Page 36 1. Page 38 1. Page 40 Two's Complement Numbers Page 41 Comparison of Number Systems Page 43 1. Page 44 1. Page 45 1. Page 46 1. Page 47 1. Page 48 1. Page 49 1. Page 51 1. Page 52 1. Page 53 1. Page 56 1. Page 58 1. Page 59 1. Page 60 Exercises Page 62 Interview Questions Page 77 2. Page 80 2. Page 83 2. Page 85 2. Page 86 2. Page 87 2. Page 89 2.
Page 90 2. Page 91 2. Page 94 2. Page 95 2. Page 96 2. Page 98 2. Page 99 2. Page 2. Page Multiplexer Page Multiplexer Logic Page Decoder Logic Page Exercises Page Interview Questions Page 3. Page Setup Time Constraint Page Hold Time Constraint Page Putting It All Together Page Resolution Time Page 4. Page Simulation Page Synthesis Page 5. Page Ripple-Carry Adder Page Carry-Lookahead Adder Page Single- and Double-Precision Formats Page Floating-Point Addition Page Organization Page Memory Types Page 6. Page Registers Page The Register Set Page Memory Page Logical Instructions Page Shift Instructions Page Generating Constants Page Conditional Branches Page Jump Page If Statements Page While Loops Page Magnitude Comparison Page Array Indexing Page Bytes and Characters Page Function Calls and Returns Page Input Arguments and Return Values Page The Stack Page Preserved Registers Page Recursive Function Calls Page The Global Data Segment Page Step 1: Compilation Page Step 2: Assembling Page Step 3: Linking Page Step 4: Loading Page Addition and Subtraction
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WebComputer Systems Design And Architecture 2nd Edition Download Pdf Pdf This is likewise one of the factors by obtaining the soft documents of this Computer Systems WebDownload Ebook Computer System Design And Architecture 2nd Edition Read Pdf Free Thank you very much for reading Computer System Design And Architecture WebDownload Digital Design And Computer Architecture, Second Edition [PDF] Type: PDF Size: MB Download as PDF Download Original PDF This document was uploaded WebComputer Systems Design And Architecture 2Nd Edition PDF Book Details. Product details Publisher: Addison-Wesley Professional; 2nd ed. edition (April 3, ) WebComputer System Design And Architecture 2nd Edition Pdf is available in our book collection an online access to it is set as public so you can download it instantly. Our WebComputer Systems Design and Architecture - Free download as PDF File .pdf) or read online for free. Scribd is the world's largest social reading and publishing site. ... read more
Charles Babbage, — Page Direct Mapped Cache Side-by-Side Coverage of SystemVerilog and VHDL Hardware description languages HDLs are at the center of modern digital design practices. The energy drawn from the power supply to charge a capacitance C to voltage VDD is CVDD2. For example, for 5-bit numbers with a bias of 15, the number 0 is represented as , 1 as , and so forth. Page 7 Dedication Page Motor Control
Synchronous Logic Design. This pMOS transistor is often called a weak pull-up. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information or methods described herein. The labs include instructions on how to implement the projects on the DE2 Board. Determine the battery life of the phone a if it is not being used, and b if it is being used continuously.
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